An associative learning test was used to measure the learning speed of a simple learning task, by measuring the number of trials it took an individual to learn that the black cue contains a reward (figure 1). A reversal learning test was used to measure the learning speed of a more complex learning task, by measuring the number of trials it took a chick to learn that the reward was no longer presented at the black cue but was now presented at the white cue. I also measured behavioural flexibility by taking the time it took a bird to first explore the white cue.